پژوهشکده حقوق و قانون ایرانفصلنامه تحقیق و توسعه در حقوق تطبیقی2981-180572220240621A Comparative Study of the Possibility of Selecting Serving Judges as Arbitrators in International Commercial Disputesمطالعه تطبیقی امکان انتخاب قضات شاغل به عنوان داور در دعاوی تجاری بینالمللی165671424510.22034/law.2024.2020878.1287FAمهرابداراب پوراستاد تمام دانشگاه شهید بهشتی،تهران،ایران0000-0002-5392-4157سید محمدمهدیموسوی عبدل آبادیگروه حقوق تجارت بین الملل، دانشکده حقوق، دانشگاه شهید بهشتی، تهران، ایران0009-0007-5410-2116Journal Article20240122Some laws have prohibited the selection or appointment of serving judges as arbitrators. This limits the scope of the will of the parties and may be caused by the rules governing the seat of arbitration or the law governing the contract. As an example, we can point to the prohibition of the appointment of serving judges as arbitrators by the parties, mentioned in Article 470 of the Civil Procedure Act. Of course, in international commercial arbitrations, due to the unique nature of the International Commercial Arbitration Act and according to Clause (1) of Article 36 of the aforementioned Act, the content of this Act is not applied in domestic arbitration regulations. However, some bylaws issued by the honorable Chief Justice of the Judiciary and special laws have imposed prohibitions regarding the freedom of judges to adjudicate arbitration cases. In many legal systems, not only the appointment of judges as arbitrators is not prohibited, but on the contractor their appointment in some countries, such as China, is mandatory.<br />Examining the arbitration laws in different countries and analyzing the relevant regulations, this article seeks, through a comparative study, to resolve any doubt pertaining to the permissibility of appointing judges as arbitrators in international commercial disputes. Also, by examining the possibility of their maintaining independence and neutrality, it shall be demonstrated that this prohibition lacks a substantial logical and legal basis. The findings of this study revealed that If there is any doubt regarding the independence or impartiality of an arbitrator chosen by the parties, in accordance with the rules governing arbitration, whether domestic or international, as well as the circumstances surrounding the case, the grounds for challenging the arbitrator will be provided. There are no explicit criteria for lack of independence or impartiality of an arbitrator, and in this regard, attention should be paid to the circumstances of each case and not rely on personal criteria. For example, simply the filing of a disciplinary complaint by one of the parties against the arbitrator cannot lead to his disqualification. Given that the court addresses various stages such as the appointment of an arbitrator, identification, enforcement, and annulment of the arbitral award and, in other words, the arbitration process at these sensitive stages is dependent on the court, the selection of a judge as an arbitrator may create grounds for his conflict of interest. In this regard, if the arbitrator directly deals with his own issued award, the matter falls under paragraph (v) of Article 91 of the Civil Procedure Law and the court's judgment must be rejected due to the existence of personal interest. In other cases where the arbitrator does not have a legal intervention in the case as a judge and directly, whether as a high-ranking or submitting official, so no conflict of interest is presumed, since judges are independent and mere professional unity cannot lead to a conflict of interest.برخی از قوانین، انتخاب یا انتصاب قضات شاغل را به عنوان داور ممنوع کرده اند.این امر محدود کننده حاکمیت اراده طرفین بوده و ممکن است ناشی از قوانین مقرر داوری و یا قانون حاکم بر قرارداد باشد. به عنوان نمونه، میتوان به ممنوعیت انتصاب قضات شاغل به عنوان داور از سوی طرفین، موضوع ماده ۴۷۰ قانون آیین دادرسی مدنی، اشاره نمود. البته در داوریهای تجاری بین المللی به علت خاص بودن قانون داوری تجاری بین المللی و به موجب تصریح بند(۱) ماده ۳۶ قانون مذکور، مفاد این قانون از شمول مقررات داوری داخلی خارج است. هرچند برخی از بخشنامههای ریاست محترم قوه قضائیه و قوانین خاص ممنوعیتهایی را در خصوص داوری قضات ایجاد نموده است.در بسیاری از نظامهای حقوقی، نه تنها انتصاب قضات به عنوان داور ممنوع نیست، بلکه انتصاب آنها در برخی از کشورها، نظیر چین، الزامی میباشد.<br />این مقاله با بررسی قوانین داوری در کشورهای مختلف و تحلیل مقررات مرتبط با آن، در صدد رفع شبهه عدم امکان انتصاب قضات به عنوان داور در دعاوی تجاری بین المللی، به صورت تطبیقی است. همچنین با بررسی امکان حفظ استقلال و بیطرفی آنان نشان داده شده است که این ممنوعیت چندان وجاهت منطقی و حقوقی ندارد.https://jcl.illrc.ac.ir/article_714245_e72671b39239d35d0b959fbb13f63f41.pdfپژوهشکده حقوق و قانون ایرانفصلنامه تحقیق و توسعه در حقوق تطبیقی2981-180572220240621A Review of Principles Governing the budgeting system in Iran and Franceبررسی اصول حاکم بر نظام بودجهریزی در ایران و فرانسه579971424610.22034/law.2024.2015999.1276FAولیرستمیاستاد دانشگاه تهران، تهران ،ایران0009-0009-2176-3211حامدسهرابیدانشجوی دکتری، حقوق عمومی، دانشگاه تهران، تهران، ایران0000-0002-0961-299XJournal Article20231118The special economic conditions that prevail today on the one hand, and the accelerating developments in the realm of public finance in the world, which rely on the efficiency and effectiveness of the countries' financial plans on the other, require a suitable model for the budget as an annual section of the national medium and long-term plans as means of ensuring social satisfaction, should be foreseen as one of the basic aspects of good governance. It is necessary to have proper knowledge of the way other countries function and to take advantage of their experiences in preparing the budget law. Therefore, in this article, relying on analytical-descriptive research and comparative study, and library resources, while introducing the budget, an attempt has been made to discuss the principles governing budgeting (drafting and proposing the budget) and the developments in recent years in these principles, particularly in France, an effort is made to answer question as to "the nature of the principles governing budgeting in Iran and France and the latest developments in this field". At the end, suggestions have been made to make budgeting more efficient and up-to-date in Iran.<br /><span lang="EN">The results of this study showed that In the Islamic Republic of Iran, the principles of the Constitution, the general policies of the system, the 20-year vision document, the law on the five-year economic, social, and cultural development plan, the internal regulations of the Islamic Consultative Assembly, and the approved plan and budget law of 1972, the General Accounting Law, the law on regulating some financial regulations of the government, and Addendums (1) and (2) to this law are considered as the main legal frameworks for budgeting. In France, the Constitution of 1958 and the Organic Budget Law, the Organic Law on the Financing Resources of Social Security approved in 1996, the Contingent Expenditure Control Law of 1922, the Social Security Law, and the Financial Jurisdiction Law, as well as the Local Governments Law, are the overriding documents governing budgeting. Following the study of the budgeting system in France and the process of preparing the budget draft, it seems necessary for us to expedite the operational budget realization by adhering to new principles such as transparency which leads to efficiency and better law effectiveness. In conclusion, it can be stated that conditions and features such as the role of the legislature in budgeting(in the form of effective parliaments), the position of the executive branch in preparing and proposing the budget, the existence of a specialized body for monitoring the implementation of the budget, the role of institutions arising out of the Constitution in drafting the budget and other such matters in the budgeting process between Iran and France, make a comparative study of this issue, and specifically the principles governing the budgeting system of these two countries important.</span>شرایط ویژه اقتصادی از یک سوی و تحولات روزافزون مالیه عمومی در دنیا که بر محور کارآمدی و اثر بخشی برنامههای مالی کشورها تکیه دارد، از دیگر سوی ایجاب میکند تا الگویی مناسب برای بودجه به عنوان برش سالانه از برنامههای میان و بلند مدت کشور در راستای تحقق رضایتمندی جامعه به عنوان یکی از وجوه اساسی حکمرانی مطلوب، پیشبینی شود. آگاهی مناسب از نحوه عملکرد سایر کشورها و بهرهبرداری از تجارب ایشان در تهیه قانون بودجه ضرورت دارد. براین اساس در این مقاله با روش تحقیق تحلیلی – توصیفی و بررسی تطبیقی، با استفاده از منابع کتابخانهای سعی شده است ضمن معرفی بودجه، اصول حاکم بر بودجهریزی (تنظیم و پیشنهاد بودجه) به تحولات سالهای اخیر در این اصول خصوصاً در کشور فرانسه پرداخته شود و به این پرسش پاسخ داده شود که «اصول حاکم بر بودجهریزی در کشورهای ایران و فرانسه و آخرین تحولات آن چگونه است». در آخر هم پیشنهادهایی برای کارآمدتر و روزآمدتر شدن بودجهریزی در ایران ارایه شده است.<br />این مطالعه نشان میدهد که شرایط و ویژگیهایی مانند نقش قوه مقننه در بودجهریزی (از نوع مجالس مؤثر)، جایگاه قوه مجریه در تهیه و پیشنهاد بودجه، وجود دستگاه تخصصی نظارت بر اجرای بودجه (دیوان محاسبات)، نقش آفرینی نهادهای برآمده از قانون اساسی در تنظیم بودجه و سایر مواردی از این دست در فرایند بودجهریزی بین دو کشور ایران و فرانسه موجب میشود تا بررسی تطبیقی این مسئله و به طور خاص اصول حاکم بر نظام بودجهریزی این دو کشور اهمیت پیدا کند.https://jcl.illrc.ac.ir/article_714246_b5516b8b3e449d4f717c4e459b46609a.pdfپژوهشکده حقوق و قانون ایرانفصلنامه تحقیق و توسعه در حقوق تطبیقی2981-180572220240621Tools of Interpretation in Certain Binding Precedent Decisions Rendered by the Supreme Court, in the Light of Teachings of the American Legal Systemابزارهای تفسیر در برخی آرای وحدت رویه دیوان عالی کشور، در پرتو آموزههایی از نظام حقوقی آمریکا10013071424910.22034/law.2024.2019933.1286FAمحمدرضارفیعیقاضی دیوان عدالت اداریامیرحسینسعادتی چشمقاندانشجوی دوره دکتری حقوق تجارت و سرمایهگذاری بینالمللی، دانشگاه تهران،تهران، ایرانJournal Article20240109 <br />Judges are inevitably required to interpret laws in order to issue a verdict, and therefore, the method of interpretation often determines the outcome of the case. Given the importance of interpretation in achieving judicial justice, it is essential to do so systematically and define clear criteria for evaluating judicial interpretations. These issues have led to extensive theorizing on interpretation. Among scholars, a distinction has been made between two approaches: textualism and purposivism. In addition, some writings have identified and categorized the Tools of Interpretation used in the American judicial system have been identified and categorized. Examining these writings confirms their central position in judicial interpretation. These tools, which vary in importance, include: ordinary meaning, technical meaning, legal definition, Statutory Context, Canons of Construction, legal principles, legislative history, interpretations and administrative precedents, and practical consequences.<br />This article is written in a descriptive-analytical method and based on the assumption that t is also necessary to use these tools in our judicial system. With the explanation that the right interpretation requires the right use of the right tools. The evaluation some of Decisions as a Unified Judicial Precedent of the Supreme Court confirms this claim.قضات برای صدور رأی، ناگزیر از تفسیر قوانین هستند و از این رو، غالباً نحوة تفسیر نتیجه دادرسی را رقم میزند. با توجه به اهمیت تفسیر در تحقق عدالت قضائی، ضروری است که بقاعده انجام شود و برای ارزیابی تفاسیر قضایی، حتیالامکان معیارهای مشخصی تعریف شود. این مسائل باعث شده است که در باب تفسیر نظریهپردازیهای فراوانی صورت بگیرد. از جمله، از سوی دانشوران بین دو رویکرد متنگرایی و هدفگرایی تمایز گذاشته شده است. افزون بر این، در برخی نوشتهها ابزارهای تفسیریِ مورد استفاده در نظام قضایی آمریکا شناسایی و دستهبندی شدهاند. بررسی این نوشتهها مؤید جایگاه محوری آنها در تفسیر قضایی است. این ابزارها که از حیث اهمیت، وضعیتهای متفاوتی دارند، عبارتند از: معنای معمولی، معنای فنی، تعریف قانونی، بافت قانون، ضابطههای فهم، اصول حقوقی، تاریخچه تقنینی، تفاسیر و رویههای اجرایی و پیامدهای عملی. این نوشتار، به روش توصیفی- تحلیلی و مبتنی بر این فرض نگاشته شده که بکارگیری این ابزارها در نظام قضایی ما نیز ضرورت دارد.<br />با این توضیح که تفسیر درست مستلزم استفاده درست از ابزار درست است. ارزیابی برخی آرای وحدت رویه دیوان عالی کشور مؤید این ادعاست.https://jcl.illrc.ac.ir/article_714249_5329ed38d7613b436e5ab429e35d66a7.pdfپژوهشکده حقوق و قانون ایرانفصلنامه تحقیق و توسعه در حقوق تطبیقی2981-180572220240621The Basis of Civil Liability for Service Providers in Islamic Law and Its Comparison with French, American, and European Union LawThe Basis of Civil Liability for Service Providers in Islamic Law and Its Comparison with French, American, and European Union Law13116271425310.22034/law.2024.2018880.1285FAMohammad HadiJavaherkalamAssistant Professor of Private Law, Faculty of Law and Political Science, Allameh Tabatabai University0000-0001-8236-5406AhmadGhanavizchiPhD Student in international law at Angers (France) and Geneva (Switzerland) universitiesJournal Article20240520<span lang="EN">The foundation of civil liability for service providers is not uniformly interpreted across different legal systems. In Imami jurisprudence the narrations indicate that the Sacred Lawgiver, to enhance caution in service provision and protect victims, has established a presumption of liability for service providers placing the burden of proof for exoneration on them, or at the very least, presuming their fault in liability arising from causation, obligating them to prove the absence of fault. This solution is also suggested to be accepted in Maliki jurisprudence specifically for craftsmen, although there is contrary opinion. In Hanafi and Hanbali jurisprudence, the liability of a common hireling is based on "destruction," whereas in Shafi'i jurisprudence, the presumption of non-liability is stronger. In European countries the 1991 European Commission proposal envisaged a presumption of fault for service providers, placing the burden of proving the absence of fault on the service provider, although this was not enacted due to member states' disagreements.</span><br />However, there is a tendency to facilitate the proof of their fault. Therefore, as specified in the comprehensive research conducted in 2004 commissioned by the European Commission and accepted by the judicial practice of France, the United States, and the European Court of Justice, the liability of service providers is based on fault, and the burden of proof lies with the "consumer." Consequently, the solution accepted in Imami jurisprudence, for the aforementioned reasons, is preferred over the solutions established in the other legal systems studied, and it is proposed that the global community should also adopt this approach.<br /> <span lang="EN">The foundation of civil liability for service providers is not uniformly interpreted across different legal systems. In Imami jurisprudence the narrations indicate that the Sacred Lawgiver, to enhance caution in service provision and protect victims, has established a presumption of liability for service providers placing the burden of proof for exoneration on them, or at the very least, presuming their fault in liability arising from causation, obligating them to prove the absence of fault. This solution is also suggested to be accepted in Maliki jurisprudence specifically for craftsmen, although there is contrary opinion. In Hanafi and Hanbali jurisprudence, the liability of a common hireling is based on "destruction," whereas in Shafi'i jurisprudence, the presumption of non-liability is stronger. In European countries the 1991 European Commission proposal envisaged a presumption of fault for service providers, placing the burden of proving the absence of fault on the service provider, although this was not enacted due to member states' disagreements.</span><br />However, there is a tendency to facilitate the proof of their fault. Therefore, as specified in the comprehensive research conducted in 2004 commissioned by the European Commission and accepted by the judicial practice of France, the United States, and the European Court of Justice, the liability of service providers is based on fault, and the burden of proof lies with the "consumer." Consequently, the solution accepted in Imami jurisprudence, for the aforementioned reasons, is preferred over the solutions established in the other legal systems studied, and it is proposed that the global community should also adopt this approach.<br /> https://jcl.illrc.ac.ir/article_714253_fd002c67f7a2d1b8c000294b529c3236.pdfپژوهشکده حقوق و قانون ایرانفصلنامه تحقیق و توسعه در حقوق تطبیقی2981-180572220240621Examining Instances of Surprising Contractual Terms and the Approach of International Commercial DocumentsExamining Instances of Surprising Contractual Terms and the Approach of International Commercial Documents16318671425610.22034/law.2024.2026824.1329FASeyed SinaSalimiMaster Student in Faculty of Law and Political Sciences, Allameh Tabataba'i University, Tehran, IranZahraSohrabi AbadPhD Student in Faculty of law (Civil Law Section), University of Ottawa, Ottawa, CanadaJournal Article20240419Surprising terms are those drafted contrary to the Obligor’s legitimate, normal, and reasonable expectations, which no ordinary person in the position of the accepting party could expect their existence of such terms in the contract. This is because the content, language, or manner of presenting these terms is generally overlooked by the other contracting party, who becomes bound to all the provisions by signing the contract while unaware of the surprising terms contained therein. This article explains the nature, instances, and criteria for identifying surprising contractual terms and aims to answer the following question by analyzing the legal status of these terms from the perspective of international commercial documents: Does the mere apparent acceptance and signing of the contract by the Obligor commits them to these terms? The findings of this study suggest that international commercial documents adopt a similar approach in this regard.<br />The UNIDROIT Principles of International Commercial Contracts have deemed invalid surprising terms incorporated in standard contracts with a feature the other party could not reasonably have expected and were not expressly accepted by the Obligor. Similarly, based on the Principles of European Contract Law, contractual terms that have not been individually negotiated are only admissible against a party who was unaware of them if the citing party took reasonable steps to bring those terms to the other party's attention prior to or at the time of contract formation. The mere inclusion of such terms in the contract text, even if signed by the other party, is insufficient to bind the Obligor to the obligations arising from those terms.Surprising terms are those drafted contrary to the Obligor’s legitimate, normal, and reasonable expectations, which no ordinary person in the position of the accepting party could expect their existence of such terms in the contract. This is because the content, language, or manner of presenting these terms is generally overlooked by the other contracting party, who becomes bound to all the provisions by signing the contract while unaware of the surprising terms contained therein. This article explains the nature, instances, and criteria for identifying surprising contractual terms and aims to answer the following question by analyzing the legal status of these terms from the perspective of international commercial documents: Does the mere apparent acceptance and signing of the contract by the Obligor commits them to these terms? The findings of this study suggest that international commercial documents adopt a similar approach in this regard.<br />The UNIDROIT Principles of International Commercial Contracts have deemed invalid surprising terms incorporated in standard contracts with a feature the other party could not reasonably have expected and were not expressly accepted by the Obligor. Similarly, based on the Principles of European Contract Law, contractual terms that have not been individually negotiated are only admissible against a party who was unaware of them if the citing party took reasonable steps to bring those terms to the other party's attention prior to or at the time of contract formation. The mere inclusion of such terms in the contract text, even if signed by the other party, is insufficient to bind the Obligor to the obligations arising from those terms.https://jcl.illrc.ac.ir/article_714256_d59515de51c0d924ffa166a25844015b.pdfپژوهشکده حقوق و قانون ایرانفصلنامه تحقیق و توسعه در حقوق تطبیقی2981-180572220240621Digital Rights Management (DRM) Metadata Elements and their Functionalities: A Comparative StudyDigital Rights Management (DRM) Metadata Elements and their Functionalities: A Comparative Study18720771425510.22034/law.2024.2032510.1383FASeyed MahdiTaheriAssociate Professor, Department of Knowledge and Information Science, Allameh Tabataba’i University, Tehran, IranNeginShokrzadeh HashtroudiPh.D. student, Department of Information Science, Alzahra University, Tehran, Iran.Journal Article20240615The purpose of this study was to investigate the of metadata elements of Digital Rights Management (DRM) comparatively in different regions and the approach behind. This research was conducted using qualitative content analysis method. The data was gathered through documentary method and searching in databases to identify the best practices of DRM solutions. The results of this study revealed that, different metadata elements are utilized in DRM projects. When it comes to copyright, the US tends to be more pro-owner, while the Canada and UK prefers a balanced perspective that includes user activities. France and Germany have adopted strict measures in this respect, having legal provisions for sanctioning offenders. Switzerland has a more relaxed approach to DRM systems, while Australia, China, and Russia have a complex legal framework for legal protection, access controls, permissions of copyrighted content. It can be stated that, Metadata is an essential component in developing DRM systems. Rights metadata have various functionalities such as Identifying and describing the content, to manage secure content distribution, access control, content protection, and usage tracking, monitoring changes, facilitate discoverability, within DRM systems the extent to which they protected content remains secure and accessible only to authorized users. In conclusion, it could be said that based on context-based approaches, cultural norms, and infrastructures there is significant differences in approaches to the protection of digital content and this affect the types and functionalities of right metadata elements in the DRM systems.The purpose of this study was to investigate the of metadata elements of Digital Rights Management (DRM) comparatively in different regions and the approach behind. This research was conducted using qualitative content analysis method. The data was gathered through documentary method and searching in databases to identify the best practices of DRM solutions. The results revealed that Different metadata elements are utilized in the DRM projects. These metadata elements are practical in different stages of content trading and greatly depends on the technology, law, and business models. As stated before, Digital Rights Management (DRM) is an important tool for digital contents. This tool is implemented in various countries and regions. The United States is known for its strong intellectual property laws. DRM in the United States is mostly based around the Digital Millennium Copyright Act (DMCA). Canada, takes a more balanced approach to DRM systems which reflects Canada's commitment to promoting access to information while protecting intellectual property rights. In contrast, the UK Copyright, Designs, and Patents Act of 1988 suggests that it differs significantly with regard to DRM and a more flexible approach is considered in digital rights management.<br />This law gives the owners of the rights of copying works control over them, yet it contains some exceptions like research, private study, and criticism. British government has also taken measures to promote the use of DRM technologies, for example, the Creative Content Online initiative that promotes legal distribution of digital content. In France the DRM projects are France comply with the French Intellectual Property Code (Code de la Propriété Intellectuelle) and consider Commission Nationale de l'Informatique et des Libertés – CNIL. The main components of DRM solutions in the France are data protection, privacy concerns, permissions, managing user data, usage rights, and etc. Germany has a similar approach to DRM as France. In Germany the implications of the German Data Protection Act (BDSG) is considered when managing user data through DRM solutions. The DRM solutions of this country implement strong access controls and techniques to protect content rights. based on legal frameworks, cultural norms, and infrastructures there is significant differences in approaches to the protection of digital content and this affect the selection of right metadata components in the DRM systems. When it comes to copyright, the US tends to be more pro-owner, while the UK prefers a balanced perspective that includes user activities. France and Germany have adopted strict measures in this respect, having legal provisions for sanctioning offenders. Switzerland has a more relaxed approach to DRM systems, while Australia, China, and Russia have a complex legal framework for legal protection, access controls, permissions of copyrighted content. Rights metadata have various functionalities such as Identifying and describing the content, to manage secure content distribution, access control, content protection, and usage tracking, monitoring changes, facilitate discoverability, within DRM systems the extent to which they protected content remains secure and accessible only to authorized users. In conclusion, it could be said that based on context-based approaches, cultural norms, and infrastructures there is significant differences in approaches to the protection of digital content and this affect the types and functionalities of right metadata elements in the DRM systems.https://jcl.illrc.ac.ir/article_714255_1d8f1cb0b4d0010b1333b9c087a16c8b.pdf