Journal of Research and Development in Comparative Law

Journal of Research and Development in Comparative Law

Foundations of Criminalization of National Flag and Anthem Desecration and Its Conflict with the Right to Freedom of Expression (A Comparative Study of Criminal Policy in Eight Countries)

Articles in Press

Document Type : scientific research paper

Authors
Salar Sadeghi 1
Taha Eslami 2
1 Assistant Professor of Criminal Law and Criminology, Roshdiyeh Higher Education Institute, Tabriz, Iran.
2 PhD student of Criminal Law and Criminology, Islamic Azad University, Tabriz Branch, Tabriz, Iran.
10.22034/law.2025.2070284.1695
Abstract
The national flag and anthem, as official symbols of national identity, are protected under criminal law in many countries, and the criminalization of their desecration is often justified as a means to preserve national identity and safeguard state security. These measures aim to prevent actions that may undermine the authority, legitimacy, or dignity of the state. However, criminalizing desecration can conflict with the fundamental right to freedom of expression, which is guaranteed under international human rights instruments. Human rights analyses suggest that national unity cannot be effectively maintained through coercive legal interventions alone, and mandatory respect for national symbols risks restricting individual freedoms. Excessively strict criminal policies may lead to human rights violations, limiting citizens’ capacity to engage in political discourse, symbolic protest, or social criticism. Comparative studies show that countries such as the United States, Canada, and the United Kingdom generally do not criminalize insults to national symbols, protecting such acts under freedom of expression unless they involve direct threats, violence, or public disorder. Conversely, in countries including Germany, France, China, and Iran, desecration of national symbols is criminalized; in Iran, similar acts may be prosecuted under broad provisions concerning crimes against national security, reflecting an ambiguous and expansive criminal policy. Based on a descriptive-analytical approach, this article examines the foundations of criminalizing insults to the flag and anthem, its conflict with freedom of expression, and the approaches adopted in eight selected countries. The study concludes that criminalizing desecration per se conflicts with freedom of expression and the principle of minimal criminal law. Such criminalization is only justified when actions genuinely threaten public order or national security. Therefore, a proportionate, human-rights-based criminal policy should respect national symbols while ensuring that fundamental human rights and freedom of expression are fully protected, maintaining a balance between symbolic national protection and individual liberties.
Keywords
Insult
National Anthem
Flag
Crime
Freedom of Expression

Subjects

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Journal of Research and Development in Comparative Law

Articles in Press, Accepted Manuscript
Available Online from 02 November 2025